Reading
Reading is creating meaning with print it is not decoding or deciphering. Deciphering is only one part of reading. Meaning does not reside solely on the page. Rather, it is a transaction between text and the head. In a transaction, both parties give something. Meaning, what’s in the head transacts with what’s on the page to create meaning.
Reading Instruction
Good reading instruction is not teaching a series of reading subskills in a predetermined order. Children do not learn to read by mastering all the things on a scope and sequence chart. You can’t “direct instruction” your way to good reading. Children are not standardized products. It’s just naïve and nonscientific to think that you could mandate a standardized reading experience and expect all to experience the full literacy potential as it is to think that you could mandate a standardized religious experience and expect all to experience transcendence.
I’m reading a book by Emilia Ferreiro and Ana Teberosky entitled, “Literacy Before Schooling” (Ferreiro & Teberosky, 1979). They did a series of ingenious experiments with young pre-literate children (ages 2-5), looking at words, pictures, and sentences. They found that children possess conceptualizations about the nature of written language long before the intervention of systematic instruction. They naturally use pictures, words, sentences, and symbols to create meaning. It is a natural human phenomenon to put order to things.
Separating decoding or deciphering from meaning, is a result of schooling. They’re taught to reject meaning in favor of decoding or deciphering. This is not a natural inclination. The consequences of reading instruction that forces children to forget meaning until after they have mastered deciphering is an impediment to the development of their full literacy potential – they have a more difficult time learning to read. They are made to ignore their own natural linguistic experiences in favor of deciphering exercises. This not only impedes their ability to learn to read but makes a joyful experience miserable.
Good reading instruction is that which best enables each child to develop their full literacy potential and to fall in love with books.
Ferreiro, E., & Teberosky, A. (1982). Literacy before schooling. Heinemann Educational Books.
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is a theory of learning that aligns most closely with cognitive psychology; however, it also seems to reinforce and be reinforced by research in the areas of cognitive neuroscience, humanistic learning theory, and holistic learning theory. Remember, a theory is a way to explain a set of facts. Different theories explain similar facts differently.
The Basics
Learning occurs when new knowledge and understanding is constructed based on what we already know and believe (NRC, 2000). This is the essence of constructivism. We do not simply replicate in our heads what we read, hear, or experience; rather, we use what’s in our head to help us understand new information and construct meaning.
For example, this chapter contains information about constructivism. As you read below you will use any related knowledge already contained in your LTM (semantic memory) along with your own experiences as learners (episodic memory) to help you construct or build a meaningful concept of constructivism. If you have an abundance of related knowledge and experiences this well be fairly easy. If you have very little related knowledge and experiences, you will have to work a little harder to build a meaningful concept. And since no two human experiences are alike, no two conceptions of constructivism will be exactly the same.
Learning
What is learning? Some descriptors that align with cognitive learning theory are provided below:.
Learning is an active process. When you build or construct something you can’t just sit in a chair. You have to do something. In the same way, a constructivist perspective sees learning as an active, not a passive process. You cannot be learned. You cannot be learned at. Nobody can learn you. Instead, you must learn. It is something you must actively strive to do.
To illustrate, if you are simply reading the words on this page without making any attempt to understand what the words might mean, it will be very hard for you to construct a meaningful concept. Instead, you need to be actively involved in constructing meaning. This means that as you read you have to (a) check for understanding as you read, (b) identify interesting or important ideas, (c) make a conscious effort to connect this information with what you already know about teaching and learning, (d) pause every once in a while to see if what you are reading makes sense, (e) connect the information to your own experiences, and then (f) think about possible applications for this new knowledge.
Real learning is meaningful. Here’s a question for you: If you memorized a list of psychological terms but you did not understand any of them would you have learned? Answer: yes. However, you would have engaged in what’s called rote learning, a very low quality of learning. This is when information is taken in but there are little or no connections to anything currently in LTM. Rote learning does not lead to understanding or meaning and thus, is fairly useless. In order to understand new information it must be connected to information that is understood. This is called meaningful learning. As the name implies, meaningful learning has meaning or makes sense and it can be easily encoded, stored, retrieved, and applied. And, the more connections to known things that you can make the more meaningful this new information becomes. Thus, we see the importance of a having a well-organized body of knowledge in the teaching and learning process (see below). We also see the importance of connecting the new to the known when you are introducing a new topic.
Memorizing is different from learning. We know that memory is important in learning. We need to be able to be able to hold new information in STM. We need to be able to encode and store new information in LTM. And, we need to be able to use knowledge currently existing in LTM in order to understand new information. But memorizing is not the same as learning. Again, you could memorize a list of psychological terms, but if they were meaningless you would not have learned anything. Real learning involves creating meaning. There are many memory strategies that can be helpful for recalling certain things (such as mnemonic devices). But these are simply memory tools. Do not confuse memorizing with learning. Whether reading, listening, doing, or experiencing, if you are not creating meaning you are not engaged in meaningful learning. Real learning is associated with something. To be meaningful it makes sense or carries some significance. To do this, new information must be connected to known information.
Learning is a cognitive process. As described above, learning takes place inside the head as new information combines with existing knowledge. This reflects Piaget’s description of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when new information adds to and enhances existing knowledge structures or schemas. From a neurological perspective, this would be when neural pathways are strengthened and neural networks are expanded. Accommodation occurs when new information conflicts with existing knowledge or does not match any existing knowledge structures or schemas. Old structures need to be modified. From a neurological perspective, this would be when new neural pathways are formed and new neural networks are created.
Since learning takes place inside the head, we can measure and observe only the effects of learning, but not learning itself. We can never fully account for the new knowledge structures created. As well, learning often goes far beyond what is taught or measured. That is, as students use their background knowledge and experience to infer and fill in the blanks, the whole of what they learn is usually far greater than the sum of the individual parts.
Learning is something humans do naturally. Humans are hard-wired to search for meaning. We have a natural tendency to make sense of their world, to look for patterns, and to creating meaning out of chaos. It is this natural tendency that has enabled our species to evolve from the earliest times. Piaget described children as natural scientists who explore their world. By acting upon the world the world acts upon them in terms of changing schema. When they encounter new information that coincides with existing schema it enhances or expands these cognitive structures (assimilation). When new information conflicts with current thinking it creates a state of disequilibrium that can only be resolved by reforming old structures or creating new ones (accommodation).
Learning is not a standardized process. Learners are not standardized products. Our brains are all unique. We all process information and learn a little bit differently. We all bring different knowledge and experiences to a learning experience. Since learning is not a standardized process, it would be silly to assume that teaching could be a standardized process. One size does not fit all when it comes to teaching strategies, pedagogy, approaches, or methodology. Thus, insisting that all teachers utilize a standard approach reduces the amount of real learning that takes place.
Learning is enhanced when it occurs in authentic situations or involves and authentic task. The goal is for students to be able use knowledge and skills, not in school environments, but out in the world (see ‘transfer’ below). Learners learn best when the knowledge and skills taught in the setting or situation in which they will be used or which replicate real life situations to the greatest degree. This is called situated learning. This means, instead of assigning a grammar worksheet with a list of fill-in-the blank questions we would ask students to write to express their ideas or describe their experiences (just like adults do in real life) and then teach grammar in the context of their authentic writing. Also, we would teach math and science using inquiry or problem-based learner.
