Excerpt from my book - Johnson, A. (2021). Designing meaning-based interventions for reading. Guildford Press.
WHAT IT IS
The focus of this chapter is on reading fluency. Reading fluency as defined here is the ability to quickly recognize words during the process of reading. It has to do with speed of processing. The ability to automatically recognize words frees up space in short term memory that can then be used for word identification and comprehension (Rasinski & Samuels, 2011).
WPM VS. WCPM: ACCURACY
On some measures of reading fluency, WCPM scores are used instead of WPM scores to assess and document reading fluency. WCPM stands for words-correct-per-minute. However, as described above, when focusing on reading fluency we are concerned only with the rate of word recognition, not the accuracy. Thus, WCPM scores should not be used with reading fluency. There are other places to address and assess word reading accuracy.
The question often asked is this: “What happens if the student just says anything?” Answer: This rarely happens. But if it does, it slows down the reading process. This is because readers usually pause when they encounter a word they do not recognize. As well, thinking about and inserting nonsense words takes up more space in short term memory reuqiring more time for a response. Thus, WPM rates should be used to assess and document progress related to reading fluency (below), not WCPM. To assess and document progress related to word identification, other measures are used (see Chapter 17).
FLUENCY STRATEGIES
Automaticity is a term used for automatically recognizing words. Repeated reading activities are one method that can be used to develop automaticity (Kuhn & Stahl, 2013; Samuels, 2013). Here students develop automaticity through reoccurring practice of the same text. Described below are various repeated reading and other fluency activities. If fluency is a deficit area, one of these activities should be included and used as one part of a reading intervention. These activities should last two to eight minutes.
Repeated Reading Strategies
Adopt and adapt the strategies below to meet your particular needs. These activities can be done individually with students or in pairs.
• Words per minute (WPM). Here students are given a piece of text at their independent reading level and asked to read it as fast as they can for one minute. The goal is to read and pronounce as many words as possible. This is done three times. The number of words read is recorded after each attempt. (Hint: On the text you use, marked off every 10 words for easy counting.) As described above, we are not concerned about accuracy or comprehension here, just speed. (There are other places to focus on these.) Finally, students record their three WPM scores on a line or bar graph (see Figure 13.2). If one minute is overwhelming, you can use word per half-minute (WPHM) scores.
The goal of repeated reading activities is to strengthen neural pathway in order to develop reading fluency. It also is a positive way for students to demonstrate progress in reading. Here students are able to see their progress as their scores go up from their first to their third attempt and over time. This serves to improve their sense of self-efficacy (believing they can accomplish things with effort), which in turn has a positive effect on academic achievement (Schunk & Zimmeman, 2006).
• Pairs and small group WPM. WPM can be done with small groups by creating pairs and assigning each student a text. Students in each pair should use texts that are different from their partner and at their independent reading level. On a common signal one partner reads while the other follows along to make sure every word is read and to help identify problem words. Stop the readers after the allotted time (one minute or half-minute). The non-reading partner counts and record the number of words read. This process is repeated two more times and then the roles are switched. Students then record their times on their fluency graph.
• Short Passage Fluency (SPF). This is a repeated reading activity in which students are given a short passage of approximately 50 to 60 words. The 30th or 40th word is underlined or marked as their target. Depending on students’ level, they read to their target mark. Students read the passage aloud three times. The time for each attempt is recorded. Students then record their times for each of the three attempts on a line graph (see Figure 13.3). (Instead of recording the number of words as done in WPM, you are recording times.) When students are consistently able to read the section at approximately 12 seconds, move up to the next target mark or go to a higher reading level.
For students with severe reading disabilities, I have created a special set SPF materials called Really Silly Stories. These are designed for students reading at the approximate grade 1 or grade 2 reading levels (Lexile 40 to 350). These stories use repetition of words and phrases, repeated charaters, sight words, dialogue, common language, and common situations to facilitate reading. Each story is broken into five to 12 daily sections so that students encounter the same characters and story elements over several lessons. Also, these stories are silly but not childish; thus, they can be used with severely struggling readers in the upper elementary grades.
• Scaffolded oral reading (ScORe). Scaffolded oral reading (ScORe) was introduced in Chapter 7. Here you and the student read the text together aloud. Again, you act as a scaffold by reading just a millisecond ahead of the student in order to maintain a steady, comfortable pace. If a student pauses or stumbles, keep reading. The student will rely on your voice to act as a scaffold in identifying words during the process of reading. You should read using a quiet voice, providing just enough structure to keep the pace moving. If the student seems to be reading fluently, provide less scaffolding by sounding out just the beginning sounds of some words or by dropping out completely of others.
Other Fluency Strategies
Replay analysis. This activity can be used for fluency as well as word identification (see Chapter 8).
Retrospective miscue analysis. This activity can be used for fluency as well as word identification (see Chapter 8).
Echo reading. Echo reading (described above) is where the you read a line of text and students repeat or echo it back. When using text on the screen, point to the words as they are being read. If students have their text, they should point to the words as you are reading them.
Reader’s theater. Reader’s theater provides opportunities for students to practice reading their lines many times. Here, a familiar story (one they have read), is broken into parts to create a script (see Figure 13.4). You will have to create the initial scripts here, but eventually students will be able to create their own. Students are assigned to different parts. Use narrator and character parts. These can be audio taped for use with picture books. (While the words will not match exactly here, the pictures will.)
